General Research Methodology
م. م. عبد الله قاسم صافي
abdullah.q@uokerbala.edu.iq
Department of English, College of Education for Humanities, University of Kerbala, Kerbala
Abstract
There are two contracting research positions or paradigms that have ontological and epistemological origins of understanding the structure and nature of knowledge and the universe: Positivism & Humanism. The research has purpose (explorative, descriptive, explanatory, and predictive), logic (deductive and inductive), use (basic and applied), and nature (qualitative and quantitative). Methodology is a general term for the systematic study of methods within it there are certain methods to apply to a research. Methodology is learned as a tool to solve problems: the topic of research is a problem that should be solved with the help of a method. Specific methods are observation method, experimental method, survey or investigation method, bibliometric method, theoretical speculation method, and experience summary method.
Research approaches/paradigms/positions
Positivism (ontologically called objectivism & epistemologically also called positivism): reality (knowledge) is objective, quantifiable, and measurable, uncovered and presented through scientific and empirical means. Experimental methods and quantitative measures are utilized to test hypothetical generalizations. Thus, preferred research methods include quantitative, deductive, scientific, objective, experimental, and statistical, and controlled surveys, questionnaires, and interviews. Positivism claims that the social world exists externally and that its properties should be measured through objective measures, where observer must be independent from what is being observed. Since there is just one reality, this reality can be expressed by the variables and measured reliably and validly. Therefore, the researcher should focus on facts, locate causality between variables, formulate and test hypotheses (deductive approach), operationalize concepts so that they can be measured and apply quantitative methods.
Humanism (ontologically and epistemologically called constructionism or interpretivism): Knowledge is subjective, qualitative, and immeasurable, uncovered through first-hand experience, producing non-numerical, narrative or descriptive data. The preferred research methods include qualitative, inductive, subjective, theoretical, humanistic, critical, and unstructured interviews. The humanistic paradigm is concerned with understanding the world as it is experienced by individuals. Researchers’ use meaning versus measurement; oriented methodologies, such as interviewing or participant observation, that rely on a subjective relationship between the researcher and participants. It does not predefine dependent and independent variables, but focuses on the full complexity of human sense.
Research Nature
Quantitative research (also known as traditional, positivist, experimental, empiricist) is based primarily on deductive logical thinking wherein theories and hypotheses are tested in a cause-effect order, where quantifiable data can be represented and analyzed through statistical and numerical techniques (in the form of numbers and statistics), developing generalizations that contribute to theory development that can enable the researcher to understand some phenomenon being studied. The greatest strength associated with quantitative research is that its methods produce reliable and quantifiable data that can potentially be generalized to a large population. In addition, it is suitable to test and validate already constructed theories about how and why phenomena occur through testing hypotheses that are constructed before the data are collected.
Qualitative research is primarily inductive in logic and subjective rather than objectively detached; reality consists of people’s subjective experiences of the social phenomenon. Therefore, reality is perceived as a human construct which is socially constructed. Interviews, focus group discussions, and observation are used for data collection. Qualitative research uses exploration to generate new hypotheses and theories generated from people’s beliefs, experiences, attitudes, behaviour, and interactions and produces non-numerical, narrative or descriptive data in the form of words, pictures or objects. One of the greatest strengths of qualitative methods is that they have the potential to generate rich descriptions of the participants’ thought processes and tend to focus on reasons “why” a phenomenon has occurred.
Research Use
Basic Research is theoretical, fundamental, and pure research, advancing knowledge and the theoretical understanding of the relations among variables and adding to an organized body of scientific knowledge. The driving force is the researcher’s curiosity or interest in scientific questions: to discover, invent, and reflect. (example: pure mathematics: is concerned with understanding underlying abstract principles and describing them with elegant theories). Fundamental studies tend to make generalizations about the phenomenon, gathering knowledge for the sake of knowledge. The aim of fundamental research is to understand natural phenomena and to formulate theories and explanatory models. It aims to answer the questions of why, what or how and they tend to contribute the pool of fundamental knowledge in the research area. (example: How did the universe begin?).
Applied Research is practical research, solving practical problems and testing theories often generated by pure science and developing these theories and applying them to real situations. (example: applied mathematics: uses equations to explain real life phenomenon such as mechanics, ecology and gravity). Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge’s sake. (example: improving agricultural crop production).
Research Purpose:
Exploratory Research is conducted when the problem is new/original or has not been clearly defined, providing insights into and comprehension of the problem for more rigorous investigation later. The aim is to look for patterns, hyphotheses or ideas can be tested and will form a basis for further research. Therefore, t does not aim to provide the final and conclusive answers to the research questions, but merely explores the research topic with varying levels of depth. One can explore a new kind of education, for example.
Descriptive Research is conducted to describe some aspects of phenomenon logically and help to understand a topic and lead to casual analysis through surveys, observation studies, and case studies. The research methods include Surveys, Correlation studies, Observation studies, and Case studies. A study of this type could start with questions such as: ‘What similarities or contrasts exist between Professor A and Professor B? Where both professors are in the College of Education for Humanities, University of Kerbala. In descriptive research the key variables are defined.
Explanatory Research is an analytical research that follows or builds on descriptive and explorative research, which is conducted to understand the causal relations among phenomena. Explanatory research looks for causes and reasons and provides evidence to support or refute an explanation or prediction. It is conducted to discover and report some relationships among different aspects of the phenomenon under study. In explanatory research the key variables and key relationships are defined.
Predictive Research is conducted to form expectations about what is likely to happen in the future; based on present information, forming designed studies to address predictive questions. focuses on using data to make predictions about future outcomes or trends. Predictive research typically involves developing mathematical models based on historical data to forecast future events. Predictive research can be used in fields such as finance, marketing, and healthcare to make predictions about consumer behavior, stock prices, and disease trends. Compared to descriptive research, which is focused on describing and understanding a phenomenon, predictive research is focused on forecasting future outcomes based on past data.
Note: These four categories are not mutually exclusive, they are a matter of emphasis. As any research study will change and develop over time, you may identify more than one purpose.
Positivism Humanism
Practical study the study could be Theoretical study
Data-driven a characteristic of Hypothesis-driven
Quantitative both positivism & Qualitative
Inductive humanism Deductive
Applied research Basic research
Some specific methods:
Observation method: Observation method is described as a data collection method to observe (to watch attentively in a scientific manner) and describe the behavior of a subject and it involves the basic technique of simply watching the phenomena until some insight is gained. It is our basic method of obtaining information about the world around us. The basic tools for observation are the senses (ex: the eye, ears, etc.), camera, video-camera, tape recorder, and laboratory conditions. Observation raised to the rank of a scientific method should be carried out systematically, purposefully, repeatably and on scientific grounds. Observation methods include: checklist method, grade-scale method, and descriptive description. Observation involves sensation, attention, and perception.
Experimental Method: Experimental method is considered to be the most scientific and objective method for studding behavior or psychological activities. It is observation under controlled conditions. In this method the investigator tries to study the cause and effect relationships regarding human behavior by performing experiments. The elements include experimental group and control group, pre-test and post-test, and three types of variables: Independent variable, depend variable, and controlled variable.
Experimental method
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Provides researchers with a high level of control.
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There is no limit to the subject matter or industry involved.
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Experimental research provides conclusions that are specific.
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The results of experimental research can be duplicated.
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Experimental research allows cause and effect to be determined.
